Political And Social Changes And Russian Revolution History Essay

Political And Social Changes And Russian Revolution History Essay Russia is a country with a great history. Back to the past, Russia existed under the Tsars since the 1533 when the country was dominated by the figure of Ivan the Terrible till the subversion of the Nicolas II on the time of Revolution in 1917. By the 1917 the bond between the Tsar and majority of Russian people had been broken. It was the second largest contiguous empire the world has ever seen. The underlying causes of the Russian Revolution 1917 are rooted deep in Russians history. During the 19th century and early 20th century various movements aimed at overthrowing the oppressive government that were staged at different times by students, workers, the members of the nobility and peasants. Two of these unsuccessful movements were the 1825 revolt against Nicolas I and the Revolution on 1905, both of which were attempts to establish a constitutional monarchy. Nicolas II (1894-1917) marked the final struggle of the Romanov autocracy to keep itself in power, despite the mounting pressure for reform from the liberal intelligentsia, the urban middle classes, blue-collar workers, and peasants. The basic dilemma of the regime stemmed from the fact that two main goals were incompatible: the creation of a modern, industrial society while retaining the autocracy. Also, Russians badly organized and unsuccessful involvement in World War I (1914-1918) added popular discontent with the governments corruption and inefficiency. In 1917 these events resulted in the fall of the czarist government and the establishment of the Bolshevik Party, a radical offshoot of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party as the ruling power. It is interesting to look at this particular case study as Revolution broke up the basis of the Russian history of the governing the state and brought mass of changes to the society and politics. It has toppled the Tsar and led to a Bolshevik regime played a decisive role in shaping world history in the twentieth century. The Russian Revolution of 1917, at once compact and comprehensive, puts the events of that fateful year into historical perspective. Revolution gave rise to the Soviet States, the era of the Stalin and the dawning of glasnost. This is a history without compromise, sometimes agonising in its cruelty and hardship, sometimes heroic and courageous in its battle against fate, but above all it is the story of a nation in the making; a nation we live with today. Questions which are particular interesting in this case are political and cultural context in which Revolution occurred. Also, questions how this kind of revolution was organised and did they had leaders of the movement and who they were, are central in this case study. In addition, it is specifically important to look at the outcomes of the Revolution. According to the Theda Skocpol States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (1979) the preconditions of all three revolutions were similar but their outcomes were different. An overview of the historical, political and cultural context in which the movement/revolution occurred/is occurring, with a reflection on how this context shaped the movement/revolution you are looking at. Revolutions are the locomotive of history. Karl Marx. During the centuries theory of revolution had been developed especially since the new type of revolution, communist revolution. The theory of Russian Revolution was Marxs materialist conception of history. Marx was interested in the way why revolutions occur and describe it as the economic and state collapse brought by the incapacity of the productive system to develop further and to meet demands of the working class.  [1]  In relation to Marx theory, Hobsbawm (1986) expressed revolution in the context of the historical transformation of the states. Also, Skocpol (Rentier State, 1982: 265) defines the social revolutions as rapid, basic transformation of a countrys state and class structures, and of its dominant ideology. Entire waves of the social movements arise from broad historical development. The relationship between autocracy and backwardness stood at the heart of Russian historical development in the 19th century. For the centuries, autocratic ruled the country and majority of Russian population lived under severe economic and social conditions. The reign of Nicolas I (1825- 1855) was based firmly on the principles of autocracy. First revolt against Tsar derives from a group of military officials in 14th December 1825.  [2]  Decembrist aimed to replace autocracy with a democratic political and social order by means of the coup detat. Another unsuccessful revolt of social and political disagreement was in 1905. Fist Revolution in 1905-1907 was cause by the aggravated of internal conditions of the state as a result of the unsuccessful war against Japan which also, activated left wing in the state. Complex disagreements arose between the population as a result of the capitalism development, a nd its immaturity. 9th January, Bloody Sunday- massive demonstration of the working class gathered to present a petition for reform to the Winter Palace. The guards opened fire and hundreds man and women were killed. Such an event become known and in every lands end become strikes. In 17th of October in 1905 came Manifesto with new rights for the Russian people, which invoke constitutional illusion and brought cleavage to the Revolution. Also, Revolution wave become less after the suppression of the Decembrists revolt. Trotsky once called Revolution 1905 as a dress rehearsal for 1917.  [3]   The direct cause of the February Revolution of 1917 was the collapse of the czarist regime under the gigantic tension of World War I (1914-1918). In comparison with France and China revolution, which occurred during the formal peach, Russian Revolution developed under direct result of defeat war. After the Japanese war Russian army thoroughly reorganised, had more artillery and excellent spirit. However, in the end of the 1916 Russian fatal statistics of the death people ruined the morale of the army, more than four million people were killed and around one a huff soldiers were in presentment  [4]  . The army was ripe for revolution. In addition, the countrys economy began to display alarming signs of weakness, which made it unable for the Russia to maintain the war effort against powerful, industrialized Germany. Inflation, slow at first, soon gained momentum, and ricers soared. Russian industry was not able to supply to arm, equip, and supply the some 15 million men who were sent into the war as well as the civilians. The misery of the working people was intensified by a growing shortage of food and the railroad network was inadequate. Moreover, mobilizations disrupted industrial and agricultural production. Quite often in the trenches the soldiers went hungry and lacke d equipments or munitions, sometimes even weapons. In comparing with any army in the previous war Russian casualties were greater. Behind the front, goods became scarce, prices skyrocketed, and by 1917 famine threatened even in the larger cities. Discontent became rife; also, it was attributed by many of the supposed treachery of Empress Alexandra and her circle, in which Grigory Yefimovich Rasputin- peasant monk had the dominant influence.  [5]  At the time when the Duma, protested against the inefficient conduct of the war and the arbitrary policies of the imperial government, the Czar-Emperor Nicholas II-and his ministers simply ignored it. The Collapse of the Romanov autocracy in March 1917 was one of the most spontaneous, leaderless, anonymous revolution of all timeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ã‚  [6]   Back to the Sckocpol theory and main argument that the revolutions are not made, they come are emphasized in communist revolution. It includes all classical conditions of the social revolution such as: first of all is that the military competition is defeat, secondly inability to compete economically within an unevenly developing capitalist world economy also, inability to carry out reforms against the interests of strong landed upper class and in addition widespread peasant revolt without any control of it. All of these conditions of the state lead to the revolution. An examination of how the movement is/was organised, and of any practical and/or ethical implications of this. Mobilization is a process of increasing the readiness to act collectively. (William A. Gamson, The Strategy of Social protest) The absence of a constitution or clear conventions created conditions in which supporters and critics of absolutism claimed to offer the correct interpretation of the powers of the monarchy.  [7]  Peter first laid the foundation of the Imperial Russia with great response for the figures of the tsar. During the eighteenth century politics was on low level, it was poorly defined judicial, executive and administrative functions, and it resulted to the weak level of coordination and large reliance on the role of personality. Russian people believed that an inherently selfish power was typical of absolute monarchies with protected only the interests of the elite. During the nineteenth century overall efficiency of the government were improved by the vertically organised ministers as it become more modern and specialized. After the first revolution the tsars prerogatives were wide- ranging and remained powerful, that no bill could become a law without his signature. After the establishment of the Duma and couple reforms created political problems to the tsarist regime and many people start to believe that it was first step of the path travelled by the countries of the West. However, they do not have any opportunity to initiate the legislation. Even half of the Duma members were chosen by the tsar personally and State Council itself remained very sensitive to the tsar. By the mid to late nineteenth century increased the professionalism of bureaucratic seams to represent threat to the tsars regime through systematisation of the business and control of the flow of the information, let alone its specialized knowledge of areas. Such social changes began to have an increasingly powerful impact of the government. Also, the dynasty of Romanov become directly tied because Peter I established Russia as a great European Power. Educated elite began to show signs of dissatisfaction with the autocratic system of government. Even in the early eighteenth Decemb rists were claiming that Russian should adapt European economical models. In comparing with Bourbon France revolution similarities is clear visible with Romanov dynasty, as there was no turning back that aristocracy, took pride in the belongings to the great state. The problems of Domestic Challenges, itself was that society itself was not rich or modern enough. So, people were needed social-economical reforms such as the abolition of reform, inculcation of legal principles and industrialisation. According to the Machiavellis warning rule: if the necessity for reform comes in trouble times, you are too late for harsh measure; and mild ones will not help you, for they will considered as forces from you, and not one will be under any obligation to you from them.  [8]   After the February revolution in 1917 the government was quickly dispersed and autocracy collapsed. Two new bodies exercised political power, New Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet of Workers and Soldiers Deputies. Immediately deputies appointed a commission to cope with the problems of food supply for the people. However, railroad system, could not handle the simultaneous demands of the food supply for the cities and in the same time supply the fronts and addition to prove raw materials of the industries. On the first of March was accepted Order No 1 which stated that those soldiers and sailors who did not conflict with Soviet were to be elected for committees that would exercise exclusive control over all weapons.  [9]  Addition problem arise that the Russian financial situation by 1917 was bankrupt and Western Allies were willing to provide financial support for the Russia with condition to remain at war. In the same time revolt occurred in the cities and at the f ront, Provisional Government could not respond to the basic needs of the ordinary people. The question was not who should govern, it was rather whether national order could be re-established at all because Provisional Government could not make any fundamental changes. Population become more and more disgruntled with the Provisional Government. Peasants wanted mostly to be left alone to govern their own affairs, breakdown the discipline in the army and the spread of workers. People start to calling for peace, bread, land, and all power to the soviet. As a result on March 6 the Petrograd Soviet split with the Provisional Government of the question of war or peace. But also question was that only soviet could solve the problems of the workers and peasant and it were decisively molded by the Bolshevik propaganda following the April third the arrival in the Petrograd of Lenin. Lenin quickly becomes successful in his leadership and propaganda of the Bolshevik party and requirement of people itself. In addition, another famous revolutionary Leon Trotsky- a Commissar for War agreed with the Lenins policy and joined the Bolshevik Party. Also, credibility to the Bolshevik propaganda added by the Kerensky on June 16 when he orders an offensive that ended in a complete defeat and the virtual disorganization of the army. Discipline of the army broke down and millions of soldiers escape further fighting and try to take part in the division of the land. In the July was adopted a resolution for the abolition of the Duma forced by the Petrograd of Soviets. Also, congress of Soviets organized a demonstration of about 400,000. The resignation of the Kadet ministers lead to the 500,000 workers and sailors demonstration to denounced the government. The Bolshevik party put itself a head of the movement for the peace keeping. However, July demonstration shaped a wave of political reaction of the people. In addition Lenin was denounced as a paid agent of the Germany; Trotsky and others were arrested. Kerensky government did not prevail any economical condition of the country and as a result Bolshevik party start to grow up. At tha t time Kornilov decided to establish a military dictatorship in Petrograd but his army was dissolved before he reached the capital and he was arrested. And the Bolshevik party become to secure a majority in the Petrograd Soviet. Second important revolution occurred in October 10 after the Lenins policy for the opening for the second Congress of the Soviets. Later on October 24 to 25 under the direction of Trotsky soldiers, sailors, and armed workers stormed the Winter Palace, headquarters of the Provisional Government. Also in armed insurrection were involved tens of thousands of men and women. On the afternoon of 25 Trotsky announced the end of the Provisional Government. The second Congress of Soviets began its deliberation and as a result majority of the Menshevik and Socialist Revolutionaries delegates withdrew from the congress. Was made a lot of ratification of the land principles, national property become under the protection of local land committees and soviets. Second Congress of the Soviets also affirmed the rights of all citizens to cultivate land by their own. However, right from the start the Bolsheviks faced political opposition from the other socialist parties to their attempt to rule alone. O n March 3 in 1918 the New Government under the Bolshevik control signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk what ended Russians involvement in World War 1. But under the treaty that Russian should give up the territory of Ukraine, Finland, Poland and Baltic States. The Opposition to the Bolshevik Party erupted into civil war that lasted from 1918 until the late 1920. The strict control of the country was taken by the Lenin and the Russian Communist Party. Sailors revolt and workers strikes were quickly crushed. Lenin Established New Economic Policy to strengthen the country which actually has been drained by seven years of turmoil and economic decline. As a result of Revolutions in December on 30, 1992 was established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and ethnic territories of the former Russian Empire. A critical analysis of the ways in which the revolutionary/social movement framed/is framing the issues of contention. The transformation of social issues into collective action frames does not occur by itself. It is a process in which social actors, media and members of a society jointly interpret, define and redefine states of affairs. Sidney Tarrow. Successful revolt strategy is based on values and goals of the collective action. Values motivate people and shape the components of action. From another hand, collective action can be interpreted as the emergence of trends; of the formation and consolidation of new values systems. That can be presented as social justice, human right and environmental preservation. According to the Ingleharts suggestion it is based on two assumptions and he defined it as the scarcity hypothesis hierarchy of the needs. In relation to the Russia revolution movement people needs were very basic. On the February 24 people were claiming for peace: Down with the war and Down with autocracy. In relation to the French revolution, it produced the first systematic attempts to reshape political culture around new forms of dress, holidays, public works, salutations and monuments.  [10]  As the revolution spread, so did its symbols. Central symbol of the February revolution become Square of the Uprising, demonstrated huge open space an ideal arena for a political meeting, and for the theatre of the Revolution.  [11]  Perhaps more important was a symbolic challenge: statue of Alexander III as a symbol of autocracy. On 26 of February number of workers was killed when the workers and soldiers came face to face. On the February 27 the revolution triumphed and regime of the Petrograd garrison went over to the people. More than 150,000 united workers and soldiers joined the revolution and took control of the city: as a result of revolt were nearly 1500 victims.  [12]  As Kniss (1996) notes, the interpretive elasticity varies among different type of symbols. The red flag become an emblem of the peoples struggle, embodying their anger and ideals, people were even ready to die for that symbol.  [13]  From the theoretical work of Erving Goffman (1974) has proved that symbolic aspects of collective action are v ery influential. Symbolic production enables us to attribute to events and behaviours of collective action. Gamson (1992) defined three central components to motivate collective actions: injustice, agency and identity frames. In October Revolution Vladimir Lenin used slogans as Peace, Land, Bread and famous one All power to the Soviets. The Great October revolution was more about the destroying rather than renew. Comparing with the French revolutionary festivals, the iconoclasm of the February Revolution obeyed the law of the purge. Russia revolutionary felt itself to be in one camp against the enemy. People wore red arm bands or tied red ribbons in their buttonholes to show their support for the revolutionaries. Even some of the cafà © displayed the following advertisement: Fellow-Citizens! In honour of the great days of freedom, I bid you all welcome. Come inside, and eat and drink to your hearts content.  [14]   The empirical evidence of actions demonstrates that people with post- material values are supporting new form of collective actions.  [15]  The Petrograd workers had long traditions of activism and memories of 1905 Revolution. Accept all theoretical implications of the culture and Action as cognitive proxies social movement activity largely consists of practices more directly linked to the symbolic production.  [16]  Also, in the self-organisation of the revolutionary crowd were very important flags and songs. The Menshevik A.E. Diubua recalled that a crowd of several hundred workers moved down Nevsky singing songs and carrying red flag.  [17]   To the parasites, to the dogs, to the rich! Yes and to the evil vampire- Tsar! Kill and destroy them the villainous swine! Light up the dawn of a new and better life! Another important aspect of Revolution symbolic is the changing of public and personal names. The new names reflected general symbols of emancipation. For examples old names of the Empress Catherine become called Free Russia. Cultural Environment are usually conceptualized as norms and values of the population. Rochon (1998) he suggested that cultural change and movements role in that change.  [18]  He ties social groupings as communities for new value perspectives. He tries to understand a balance of values, as a deep feature of culture that serves to integrate social life. Rochon argued that value are widely and deeply held and because of that culture changes is a contentious struggle. In addition, Marxist ideology to suggest that environmental urban crisis could be read as an outcome of the spread of mechanism of capitalist exploitation from the factory and the labour market to its surrounding community. The Leninist party can also be considered proof of Marxisms cultural domination model. According to the Lumley (1990) theory models of counter culture and political proposals such as that of the environmental lists, which has little in common with representation of a class nature, were accorded lit tle space in the development of the movements although they were also present. A critical analysis of the action forms used by the actors involved. We will either find a way or make one. Hannibal Social movement are best understood as clusters of contentious interactive performances of protest events.  [19]  Central to this is movement tactics such as strikes, riots, and violent incidents. According to the Tarrow (1998) he categorised form of protest as: violence, disruption and convention. Violence is the easiest kind of collective action that function of the interaction between movement tactics and policing. It can be used as a transforms the relations between challengers and authorities. Moreover, it is the major power in movement. However, in February revolution for the first point was not any violence. It can impress people and it also could limit the formation of movement because of restrains and frightens off sympathizers. Disruption is the archtypical expression of challenging groups.  [20]  People become scared of disruption no more than a threat of violence. They performance demonstrate their identity and reinforce their solidarity. Revolutionaries were trying to keep authority off balance and keep the public interest with possible opportunities of better life. The demonstration became the major means of the though which workers build and express solidarity. The spread of demonstration rapidly become known with it symbols. However, in repressive state as Russia demonstration regards as potential riots which actually mean it will lead to the savage repression as it was in 1905- Bloody Sunday. Back to the February revolution it was more likely to gain public approval. People start to act. In St Petersburg nearly every industrial enterprise had been shut down, people start to join the strikes. Moreover, Tarrow (1993) suggested that the increases in the rate and variety of form of collective action bring about increases in the number of organizations and other mobilization structures engaged in collective action. As an example the range of tactics used use in the US 1982 was reasonably for winning broad public support.  [21]  Back to the Russia Revolution it increased the capacity to disrupt routines. In addition, strength of revolution was the size of the movement. The civil right movement is always ability to mobilize large number of participant. According to the culture reasons majority of the people shared same believes and values. The revolution was made spontaneously without any leadership. But such king of movement could not be acted by own, it should be organised by strong leader. Even Provisional Government could not demand the society need and was withdrawn by the Bolshevik party leaded by Lenin. According to the Protest Tactics of Goodwin and Jasper (2007) tactics means doing what you can with what you have. Trotskys in the Revolution 1917 played important role in building up the Red Army, and without him the revolution would have been crushed. He was one of who agreed the Lenins ideology and entered party. Lenin himself, used the moment and launched his antiwar attack on the Government. He gets support from the masses and quickly revived their influence. A reflection on means and ends in relation to your case study, and on any ethical issues arising from its practices and/or its aims. We cannot think first and act afterwards. From the moment of birth we are immersed in action and can only fitfully guide it by taking thought. ALFRED NORTH WHITEHEAD Interesting question arising in relation to the ends and means, does the particular ends of the revolution justify the particular means of it? The man of action views the issues of means and ends in pragmatic and strategic terms. The fist points at the beginning arising about the possibility of various forms of actions. But the means and ends must coherence; immoral means cannot bring about moral ends. However, no one can predict any reliability how any collective action would interfere and response to injustice, oppression and violence. For the Russian population it was already impossible to find way of surviving. Rather than find method of struggle people choose to fight. But the means represent the ideal in the making; in the long run of history destructive means cannot bring about constructive ends.  [22]  Second point which Gandhi suggested is nonviolence: it contends that ones aim must never be to inflict injury upon the opponent. However, he also says that he did not mentioned truth in relation to the nonviolence as a World-force because simply truth cannot be expressed excepting by nonviolence. For a long time period people become tired of struggling and poverty. Gandhi mentioned that it is a goal and it is beautiful to have a method of struggle and it can be powerful social force. According to the Russia famous poetry Fyodor Ivanovich Tyutchev: Russia cannot be understood with the mind alone, No ordinary yardstick can span her greatness: She stands alone, unique In Russia, one can only believe. But people start to feel hate and anger, they become tired to believe. After the Bloody Sunday people were more than ready for the changes. Gandhi puts love of the first place of non violence and avoids external physical violence. But love stuff is next stepped to the anger and vice versa. At the point when person is exhausted he could have different range of emotions from crying to laughing. Even so, people would be willing to use nonviolence strategy, if there were possible circumstance. But violence strategy is more successful in the current conflict.  [23]  Moreover, against nonviolence strategy of love stuff difficult to understand if the person acting as not as human being, which king of acts should taken? I would say that at the moment when person using violence against person who acting as not human being, he losing his soul as well. According to the Martin Luther King If you are hit you must not hit back; you must rise to the heights of being able to accept blows without retaliating. That what he called suffering as a powerful social forceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ man does not know how to handle it. A consideration of the actual or potential outcomes of the movement/revolution you have looked at. There are many debates about the exact time of the end of Revolution. The end of the Revolution came at the moment when the Communist party start to control most of the future USSR territory. The biggest outcome of the movement was the dramatic social changes in the in the Russian. Russian empire of capitalism, monarchy and church was replaced by the theoretically classes society equal comrades. The initial statement was that no one went hungry, and everyone could enjoy life through hard work. Also, significant outcome of the social revolution was development of large-scale modern enterprises and national economical development.  [24]  In addition, Russia Revolution led to the eventual emergency of Joseph Stalin and Cold War with the United States.  [25]   Nothing would happen without the initial support of the mass of Russian population. In relation to the social studies it is not the easy to identify particular movement actions as the cause of a specific outcome.  [26]  According to the Paul Burstein argue in the re

Perspectives of Organisational Culture

Perspectives of Organisational Culture What is organizational culture all about? How did the concept arise? The idea on culture in organizations is a concept drawn from anthropology (Meek, 1988). Culture is viewed â€Å"asa system of shared symbols and meanings† (Rossi and OHiggins, 1980 cited in Lee an Yu, 2004 p. 340). Culture in organizations can simply be referred to as an organizations way of life or way of doing things. Organizational culture has been defined differently by several writers. However, most of the definitions in use lay emphases on key elements such as, norms, traditions, values, beliefs and assumptions. Organizational culture can be defined as â€Å"the collection of relatively uniform and enduring values, beliefs, customs, traditions and practices that are shared by an organizations members, learned by new recruits and transmitted from one generation of employees to the next† (Huczynski and Buchanan 2007, p.623). There is little doubt that organizational culture is a broad topic which no essay can discuss in entirety, however this essay will discuss the two approaches to the study of organizational culture and aim to critically evaluate the ways in which managers attempt to control organizational culture, drawing examples from the Hewlett Packard video watched in class and previous experience of visiting Tesco stores. History forms part of an organizations culture and it can be transmitted consciously and unconsciously over time from managers to employees. For example, it can be transmitted in the form of stories and myths (Meek 1998, Kaye 2007, Taylor S., Fisher D. et al). (Dandridge, T., Mitroff I. et al) suggest that â€Å"stories, myths and symbolism, aid understanding of the deep culture and structure of an organization†. These stories and myths in an organization might be about the start up of the organization or on the remarkable successes of its founders. For example, in the Hewlett Packard video, it indicated that the HP history formed part of the HP way as a vast number of the employees were aware of the fact that the â€Å"founders (Bill and Dave) started the company in a garage, in 1939. They developed the oscillator, used by Disney in the movie Fantasia. The bell ringing tradition was introduced by Bill and Daves wives as a signal for their husbands to observe lunch or coffee times† (The gilded cage: video watched 23 November, 2009). According to (Schein 1985 cited in Huczynski and Buchanan 2007, p.624 630) culture is considered to exist in three levels. Level one is regarded as ‘surface manifestations. At this stage, the culture of an organization is easily seen by outsiders in its symbols, language or architecture. In the Hewlett Packard case, the open plan office adopted, manifests, the relaxed environment the employees work in, and it also suggests the ease of access, between managers and employees. Tesco is very customer-centric and this is displayed by each employees approach to customers which, conveys a message regarding Tescos organizational culture of putting smiles on the faces of the shopping public, hence, creating a pleasant shopping experience for them. The second level of culture is ‘values. This has its firm foundation on morals, awareness and religious or societal precepts and is usually displayed on websites of organizations. The last level of culture is ‘basic assumptions. T hese are assumptions preconceived by an individual of an organization such as how it operates and functions in its environment. Several writers hold different views on organizational culture. The three perspective framework developed by (Martin, 1992), integration, differentiation and fragmentation perspectives provide understanding on organizational culture. The Integration or unitary perspective regards organizations as clear, consistent and unified, believing that these integrating features may result in improved organizational effectiveness. The differentiation perspective views organizations as consisting of subcultures with diverse interests and different objectives while the fragmentation or conflict perspective, sees organizations as being in a constant state of flux. The integration or managerial perspective appears to suggest that there is a relationship between strong culture and improved performance. (Scholz, 1987 cited in Huczynski and Buchanan, 2007, p.623) argues that culture generates competitive advantage. However, sustainable competitive advantage, â€Å"must be rare, adaptable and non-imit able† this determines the strong cultural traits the organization possesses (Barney, 1986 cited in Huczynski and Buchanan, 2007, p.641). Is organizational culture controllable? According to (Meek, 1998 p.455) previous studies suggest that culture belongs to management, hence, it is â€Å"available for management to manipulate†. The functionalist perspective holds that culture can be controlled, as it is regarded as something that the organization has and gives to new recruits and they do not take part in the formation, hence, it can be used as a control device by management (Smircich, 1983). However, the social constructionist perspective, rejects the notion, that culture may be controlled as it holds that culture exists through the continuous interaction between the organizations members. (Ackroyd and Cowley 1990, Harris and (Ogbonna 1999, Ogbonna 1993, Willmott 1993 cited in Huczynski and Buchanan, 2007). There exist three forms of corporate control, bureaucratic, humanistic and culture control. â€Å"More than other forms of control, however, culture control elicits sentiment and emotion,  and contains possibilities to ensnare workers in a hegemonic system† (Ray, 1986, p287). (Deal and Kennedy, 1982 cited in Ray, 1986 p.289) echoes that â€Å"it is the explicit challenge to management to make†¦ people . . . have a strongly ingrained sense of the companys values† Thus, aligning with the functionalist perspective which, supports that culture can be controlled, managers can thus, control culture, by ensuring that employees hold fast to the custom and practice of the organization. For example, in the HP video, meetings were held regularly to check the progress of team members and also to convey information to the employees as the need arises. Job security was tied to performance. Objectives setting was done â€Å"top-down, bottom-up† (objectives were set by management and accepted by each employee). The management by wondering around (MBWA) style was in force, as it enabled managers keep abreast with happenings in the company, and employees likewise had accessibility to managers to discuss issues.

Symbols and Symbolism in Death in Venice Essay -- Death Venice Essays

Subtle Symbolism in Death in Venice    The dominant theme in Death in Venice is, obviously, death. This theme is exploited through the use of irony, imagery, and symbolism. The theme is most effectively explored by means of symbolism. Mann's symbolism is not as straight-forward as most authors, however, and the reader is forced to dig deep in order to determine the true meaning of any given passage. This pseudo-hidden symbolism forces the reader to be acutely aware of its presence from page one, or else the point may be missed altogether. During the opening of the novel, the reader is confronted with an exotic stranger, Aschenbach, who is the first of many "tokens" of death. This symbol is suggested in the description of the stranger: His chin was up, so that the Adam's apple looked very bald in the lean neck rising from the loose shirt; and he stood there sharply peering up into space out of colourless, red-lashed eyes.... At any rate, standing there as though at survey, the man had a bold and domineering, even a ruthless air, and his lips completed the picture by seeming to curl back, either by reason of some deformity or else because he grimaced, being blinded by the sun in his face; they laid bare the long, white, glistening teeth to the gums. This passage almost implies that the man is a skeleton, or at least that he is ghostly, with the bared teeth of a skull. The reader knows nothing about the stranger, is soon disappointed to learn nothing of him, and yet the stranger has already served his purpose: he is the first envoy of death in the novel. Also, the fact that the scene occurs in the vicinity of a cemetery is no coincidence. Later on, when Aschenbach arrives in Venice, Mann introduces symbolism to... ... (Mann, too, conducted all his literary work during first light). The determination to sustain and survive existed in the spirit of both artists. Yet "Death in Venice" is by no certain means a narrowly autobiographical narrative. Nevertheless, much that is the artist Aschenbach is part of the artist Mann, and thus can be interpreted as a faint symbol of Mann. Perhaps Aschenbach is an extreme example of the imperfections Mann combated during his own lifetime; if this indeed is the case, then Aschenbach is not only a token of the frailty of Mann, but an emblem of the fallacies plaguing us all. Works Cited and Consulted: Albert, George. Symbolism in Death in Venice. Notre Dame Press, Indiana. 1995 Mann, Thomas. Death in Venice and Other Stories. New York: Random House, Inc., 1989. Wagner, Rich. The Autobiographical Tragedy. New York: Vintage Books, 1992. Symbols and Symbolism in Death in Venice Essay -- Death Venice Essays Subtle Symbolism in Death in Venice    The dominant theme in Death in Venice is, obviously, death. This theme is exploited through the use of irony, imagery, and symbolism. The theme is most effectively explored by means of symbolism. Mann's symbolism is not as straight-forward as most authors, however, and the reader is forced to dig deep in order to determine the true meaning of any given passage. This pseudo-hidden symbolism forces the reader to be acutely aware of its presence from page one, or else the point may be missed altogether. During the opening of the novel, the reader is confronted with an exotic stranger, Aschenbach, who is the first of many "tokens" of death. This symbol is suggested in the description of the stranger: His chin was up, so that the Adam's apple looked very bald in the lean neck rising from the loose shirt; and he stood there sharply peering up into space out of colourless, red-lashed eyes.... At any rate, standing there as though at survey, the man had a bold and domineering, even a ruthless air, and his lips completed the picture by seeming to curl back, either by reason of some deformity or else because he grimaced, being blinded by the sun in his face; they laid bare the long, white, glistening teeth to the gums. This passage almost implies that the man is a skeleton, or at least that he is ghostly, with the bared teeth of a skull. The reader knows nothing about the stranger, is soon disappointed to learn nothing of him, and yet the stranger has already served his purpose: he is the first envoy of death in the novel. Also, the fact that the scene occurs in the vicinity of a cemetery is no coincidence. Later on, when Aschenbach arrives in Venice, Mann introduces symbolism to... ... (Mann, too, conducted all his literary work during first light). The determination to sustain and survive existed in the spirit of both artists. Yet "Death in Venice" is by no certain means a narrowly autobiographical narrative. Nevertheless, much that is the artist Aschenbach is part of the artist Mann, and thus can be interpreted as a faint symbol of Mann. Perhaps Aschenbach is an extreme example of the imperfections Mann combated during his own lifetime; if this indeed is the case, then Aschenbach is not only a token of the frailty of Mann, but an emblem of the fallacies plaguing us all. Works Cited and Consulted: Albert, George. Symbolism in Death in Venice. Notre Dame Press, Indiana. 1995 Mann, Thomas. Death in Venice and Other Stories. New York: Random House, Inc., 1989. Wagner, Rich. The Autobiographical Tragedy. New York: Vintage Books, 1992.

The Day Elvis Almost Died :: Personal Narrative, Autobiographical Essay

The Day Elvis Almost Died I was riding in the backseat of my parents' red Cutlass on a warm fall day in 1984. My only entertainment was listening to the sucking sound the back of my thigh made when I lifted it off the sticky vinyl seat. I remember seeing patchwork fields of rainbow-colored leaves resting on the yellow grass, wishing that I could rake them into big piles, so I could run through them, scattering them across the field again. I rolled the dusty window down to get a better look at the pastures as the hard wind rushed in over my face and through my hair. I stuck my head through the window and opened my mouth, so my cheeks would puff out like Dizzy Gillespie's when he played his trumpet. Slowly, my cheeks began to deflate, and the wind softened as my dad braked the car to turn into the driveway of my grandparents' home, the location of our annual May family picnic. My whole family had already arrived when we showed up. All my uncles immediately bombarded the car, playfully snickering with my dad about always being late so he would not have to help them cook. My Papa Joe, with his Afro of white hair, and my Grandma Lee Lee, who limped like a peg-legged pirate because one leg was shorter than the other, were sitting in lounge chairs talking about how much I had grown. My Uncle Kelly, whose left arm was shot off by his ex-wife during an argument, was walking around, complaining about how he was going to starve if he didn't eat soon. My Aunt Rosie, who always wore a tiny pair of rose earrings and kept a wad of chewing tobacco in her mouth, talked with my mom between spits of brown, runny liquid directed into her plastic cup. Including my cousins and a few distant relatives, approximately twenty-five people were there talking, laughing, and mingling. And there I was, all alone in the land of giants with only my cowgirl Barbie to protect me. I felt like a guppy trying to swim upstream with a school of trout. Even though we had only been there for five minutes, finding my dad and leaving were my priorities.

A Paddle in the River - Original Writing Essay -- Papers

A Paddle in the River - Original Writing Admittedly I was not expecting a stroll along picturesque canyon scenery when the activity of gorge walking was announced, despite the region's hilly nature, but neither had the prospect of preparing for full blown assault down a river in its upper course occurred to me. Snowdonia is abundant with water of all descriptions, from the mists that drift across the mountain tops, to the waterfalls and rivers that forge their way towards the coast. It is safe to declare that not one part of this activity included walking; wading, staggering, stumbling, even plummeting maybe, but definitely not walking. From the moment the coach set off from base camp, and parked on a dusty cobbled road, I was awaiting the activity with anticipation. Then, to my shock, following the inquisitive cries from surrounding pupils, the instructor bluntly likened the activity to a, 'dip in a pond'. A wetsuit has always been an item of clothing designed for reassurance. Whether it be surfing in the Pacific, or even paddling off the coast of Scotland, a wetsuit is made to protect you from bitter waters. Strangely however, the suits flung on a trailer which we were told to wriggle ourselves into left me feeling helplessly exposed. The fluorescent orange shoulder patches were in tatters, and the zips on your back jammed and in some cases were non-existent. In tandem with the mild yet prominent sewerage stench, I was beginning to feel uncomfortable. After grabbing a helmet capable of fitting, and struggling to put on a life jacket, we began an ungainly stagger up to the start of our activity. The ascent proved a challenge, the ... ...sed my numb arm and wiped a bead of sweat from my brow, before loosening my collar. Suddenly my life jacket became a worthless chunk of yellow padding. A cheerful Mr Allen below, perching on a boulder, did little to boost my confidence. Hell's demons were playing cunning tricks on my mind: Is the plunge pool deeper enough? Are you certain you will not scrape your back on the side of the rock face? I was superman, as I teetered nervously off the edge and plunged down. All I could see was a blur of rich green leaves, jagged rocks, and finally Mr Allen's freckled face before I was consumed by the effervescent potion. As I plodded slowly back to the coach I had time to reflect. There was no doubt that the activity has been unusual and exhilarating and, after one sniff, I could safely say it had been a, "dip in the pond".

The Management Of Carbon Monoxide In Nigeria Environmental Sciences Essay

Carbon monoxide direction have progressively received attending in recent times, due to issues originating from the clime alteration phenomenon, and the increasing rate of wellness and environment jobs originating from air pollution. The promotions in air quality and C monoxide direction techniques are borne out of the demand for safe ambient air for all. Air quality can be defined as the quality of air we breathe, which depends on the measure of harmful gases and substances in it. Air quality is classified in the UK as ‘very good ‘ , ‘good ‘ , ‘poor ‘ and ‘very hapless ‘ ( Longhurst et al. , 1995 ) . Poor air quality, which is a effect of air pollution, is traditionally characterised by the presence of the most often and routinely monitored air pollutants ( N dioxide and its reaction merchandises, sulfur dioxide and its reaction merchandises, ozone, particulate affair, lead, volatile organic compounds and C monoxide our focal point in this research work ) at concentrations transcending the criterions which have been set to protect human wellness and the environment ( Longhurst et al. , 1995 ) . Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas that is somewhat less dense than air. It is a merchandise of uncomplete burning of carbon-containing fuels and is besides produced by some industrial and biological procedures. Carbon monoxide is a toxicant gas produced when fuels incorporating C are burned in the presence of small O. Harmonizing to experts, it can besides organize as a consequence of firing fuels at high temperatures. Much of this gas is being churned into the ambiance in Nigeria. When inhaled, C monoxide combines with the blood hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying substance in ruddy blood cells and by so making, inhibits haemoglobin from taking up O. Since hemoglobin can non take up O from the air, cells and tissues, dices due to the deficiency of O. In Nigeria, at present, the significance of natural beginnings of C monoxide for adult male is unsure. Estimates of semisynthetic C monoxide emanations vary from 350 to 600 million metric tons per annum. By far the most of import beginning of C monoxide at take a breathing degree is the fumes of petrol-powered motor vehicles. The emanation rate depends on the type of vehicle, its velocity, and its manner of operation. Other beginnings include heat and power generators, some industrial procedures such as the carbonisation of fuel, and the incineration of garbage. Faulty domestic cookery and warming contraptions may be of import beginnings that are frequently overlooked.OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDYa. To wholly specify the spacial and temporal distributions of CO ; B. To gauge the beginnings and per centum of C monoxide part to air pollution in Nigeria. c. To measure the negative impact of Carbon monoxide emanation to human wellness and the environment. d. To better understand CO tendencies, and to compare these with tendencies derived from emanation stock list informations in order to proffer best steps for Carbon monoxide emanation extenuation and direction in Nigeria.JustificationThe justification for this research is based on the environmental and wellness jeopardies posed by C monoxide with mention to air quality surveies and direction in Nigeria.LITERATURE REVIEWCarbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas that is somewhat less dense than air. It is a merchandise of uncomplete burning of carbon-containing fuels and is besides produced by some industrial and biological procedures. Its wellness significance as a contamination of air is mostly due to the fact that it forms a strong coordination bond with the Fe atom of the protohaem composite in hemoglobin forming carboxyhaemoglobin ( HbCO ) and therefore impairs the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. The dissociation of oxyhemoglobin is besides altered by the presence in blood of carboxyhaemoglobin so that the supply of O to weave is farther impaired. The affinity of hemoglobin for C monoxide is approximately 240 times that of its affinity for O ; the proportions of carboxyhaemoglobin and oxyhemoglobin in blood are mostly dependent on the partial force per unit areas of C monoxide and O. Carbonmonoxide is absorbed through the lungs and the concentrationa of carboxyhaemoglobin in the blood at any clip will depend on several factors. When in equilibrium with ambient air, the carboxyhaemoglobin content of the blood will depend chiefly on the concentrations of divine C monoxide and O. However, if equilibrium has non been achieved, the carboxyhaemoglobin concentration will besides depend on the clip of exposure, pneumonic airing, and the carboxyhaemoglobin originally present before inspiration of the contaminated air. The enormous addition in the figure and usage of motor vehicles during the past 30 old ages has been accompanied by a rapid addition in C monoxide emanations. The rate at which C monoxide is emitted from motor vehicles varies non merely with vehicle but besides with the manner of operation of the vehicle. The emanations of C monoxide by other nomadic beginnings are relatively little. Among the stationary beginnings, the combustion of waste stuff and certain industrial procedures generate significant sums of carbonmonoxide. Petroleum refineries, Fe metalworkss, kraft-pulp Millss, carbon-black workss are the major beginnings. The combustion of garbage, either in incinerators or openly, is an of import beginning of C monoxide. If uncontrolled, the emanation rate of C monoxide from incinerators is about 17.5 kilograms per metric ton of garbage burned. If burned openly, the emanation rates can change from approximately 25 to 60 kilograms per metric ton, depending upon the type of garbage ( US Environmental Protection Agency, 1973b ) . The burning of fossil fuels in electric generating workss, industries, and the place, while ensuing in the emanation of smaller measures of C monoxide separately, may represent a major beginning when combined. Any industrial procedure or operation, where uncomplete burning of carbonous stuff occurs, may easy be of importance every bit far as occupational exposure to carbon monoxide is concerned. Smelting of Fe ore, gas production plants, gasworks and coke ovens, distribution and usage of natural gas and coal gas, car fabrication, garages, and service Stationss are among the mos t of import beginnings for occupational exposure to carbon monoxide ( Ministry of Labour, 1965 ) The direction of C monoxide air quality will imply proper scrutiny of its assorted beginnings, its background degree and therefore the control of its emanation into the environment. An effectual air quality direction requires the undermentioned ( Stern, 1977 ) :I. Constitution of a set of air quality criterions or ends.The United Kingdom Air Quality Standards Regulation 2007 No. 64 defines air quality criterions as ‘limit values, mark values and long-run aims ‘ ( OPSI, 2007 ) of sum of air pollutants which should be present in the ambient air at degrees regarded to be safe for take a breathing. two. Construct an emanations stock list. An emanation stock list is a database of all emanation beginnings and the information on major air pollutants types and concentrations in the ambiance in a peculiar topographic point ( Mattai and Hutchinson, 2005 ) . Assorted standardized guidelines for building emanations stock list of air pollutants to turn to specific scenarios can be found in assorted literatures ( Mattai and Hutchinson, 2005 ; ARPEL, 1998 ; EEA, 2007 ; US EPA, 2000 ) . three. Monitoring in order to find ambient air quality. Monitoring the concentration of pollutants aimed at measuring current air quality and impacts on policy execution is an of import facet of an air quality direction system ( Long hurst et al. , 1996 ) four. Enforcement schemes and emanations control tactics should be devised. These tactics should be readily evaluated in order to set up their proficient and economical feasibleness and enforceability. Griffin ( 1994 ) identifies the constituents of an air quality direction program to include: Air pollutant concentration and effects Control schemes and rating Legislation and enforcement Beginnings and emanations Transportation system and transmutation.MATERIALS AND METHODSMEASUREMENT TECHNIQUESAnalytic Method for Determining Carbon Monoxide in Environmental SamplesThe methodological analysis for the research will see the Measurement of C monoxide in the environment utilizing spectroscopic methods that is, Non-dispersive infrared ( NDIR ) spectrometry. For analysis by NDIR spectrometry, air is pumped into samples cells and the soaking up is measured at a C monoxide vibrational set at 2,174 cm-1 ( 4.7 ?m ) . Frequent automatic nothing cheques are compulsory. Zero cheques should be performed with CO free air generated utilizing a trap consisting of Schutze Reagent or hydrophobic baronial metal accelerator ( e.g. Sofnocat ) . Most NDIR CO analysers show zero impetus ( a few to several twelve nmol mol-1 per hr. Thus the appropriate interval for automatic nothing cheques must be evaluated at single sites. The scope for the frequence of machine-controlled zero cheques normally is at least one time per hr for instruments with a big impetus and day-to-day for instruments with a little impetus. Frequent automatic span cheques are besides desirable but are less important compared to zero cheques. The frequence should be between hourly and hebdomadal cheques. An optical filter is employed before the sample to take visible radiation of other frequences. Most NDIR spectrometers use gas filter correlativity ( GFC ) methodological analysis to better sensitiveness and cut down interventions by other gasses. In this method, the sample is at the same time passed through both a mention cell incorporating a high concentration of C monoxide and a sample cell incorporating N gas. Gas species other than C monoxide will rarefy radiation every bit in both cells ; nevertheless, when C monoxide is present, the sum of light go throughing through the mention cell is unchanged, but that go throughing through the sample cell is absorbed at the characteristic C monoxide frequence. This difference in s oaking up between the light passing through the cells is linearly related to carbon monoxide concentrations in the air sample ( EPA 2000 ) . The instrument one-dimensionality is acceptable if the mean response factor of each standardization gas is within 2.5 per centum of the overall mean value and if the comparative criterion divergence for each set of triplicate injections is less than 2 per centum. Record the overall mean of the response factor values as the standardization response factor ( R ) .DATA ANALYSISThe information collected will be analysed utilizing Calculations and Data Analysis. Carry out computations retaining at least one excess important figure beyond that of the acquired informations. Round off consequences merely after the concluding computation.I. Calculations and Data AnalysisBy replacing CO for NOx as applicable. Concentration Correction for CO2 Removal. Correct the CO concentration for CO2 remotion ( if applicable ) utilizing Eq. 10-1. CAvg = CCOstack ( 1 ? FCO ) 2 Where: CAvg = Average gas concentration for the trial tally, ppm. CCO stack = Average unadjusted stack gas CO concentration indicated by the informations recording equipment for the trial tally, ppmv. FCO2 = Volume fraction of CO2 in the sample, i.e. , per centum CO2 from Or sat analysis divided by 100.SUMMARY/RECOMMENDATIONAn extended, although non conclusive, literature reappraisal has been carried out, from which a general overview of C monoxide direction state of affairs of the Nigeria has been identified. From the literature reappraisal, it can be deduced that there is the demand for the development of air quality direction plan/system. This will guarantee that high quality information on the extent and impact of air pollution by C monoxide can be used as the footing for statute law to restrict the pollution, and develop a mechanism that will heighten uninterrupted monitoring of air quality in Nigeria.DecisionIn position of this and the findings from the literature reappraisal, the purposes and aims of this research are established and a methodological analysis proposed.

Job Descriptions Essay

1. How important is job analysis to the development of job descriptions and job specifications? Discuss. Job analysis is important to the development of job descriptions and specifications because it needs to be formed before the job description and specifications. 2. What recommendations are given for improving committee effectiveness? They are having competent members, having committee properly charged, selecting or electing a competent chairperson, and recognizing/rewarding committee accomplishments. 3. Name the steps in the personnel management process. How does each step relate to the other steps? They are staffing, human resource planning, and auditing human resources. Each step is responsible for the success or failure of the next step. 4. Distinguish between job description and job specification. Job description is a written statement of all the duties and responsibilities to be performed on a particular job and job specification is a written statement of the personal qualities an individual should possess to perform a particular job. 5. List the steps in human resource planning (HRP). They are determine strategic operations, establish the time standard for reaching objectives, review internal and external environmental factors that affect staffing needs, project human talents/skills needed for achieving strategic objectives, audit human resources in the organization, determine human resource needs in the short-run and long-run to meet projected needs, and plan a program of recruitment and selection to fulfill human resource needs. 6. Discuss the meaning of motivation and the 3 conditions which must exist for employees to become highly motivated. Motivation is the psychological process that gives behavior purposes and directions. The conditions are the employee must have the ability to do the work and the work environment must be satisfactory. 7. Define morale and discuss the relationship to employee performance and motivation. Morale is the state of mind of an individual or group in regard to confidence, cheerfulness, and discipline. It is believed that high productivity results from high morale and motivation. 8. Distinguish between morale and job satisfaction. What are some of the methods used to increase employee job satisfaction in the workplace? Job satisfaction refers to the state of mind an individual has about his or her work environment but morale is in regards to the confidence and discipline. 9. Motivation theories tend to be classified as either content theories, process theories, or reinforcement theories. Distinguish between the three classifications. Content theories are motivational theories that focus on the needs within individuals that cause them to act in a certain way. Process theories are motivational theories that concentrate on rewards that individuals will possibly receive if they behave or perform in a certain way and reinforcement theories are those that base motivation on consequences of past actions to influence future actions. 10. Define leadership. Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group objectives. 11. Distinguish between leaders and managers. Leaders are a part of management. They have followers whereas managers are effective leaders because they get things done through others. 12. Describe the following leadership styles: (a) autocratic; (b) democratic; (c) Laissez-Faire. An autocratic leader makes all the decisions for the group. A democratic leader encourages and allows the group members to participate in the decision-making process. A laissez-Faire leader allows followers in the group to make the decisions themselves. 13. What is the importance of communication to the management function of planning? To organizing? To implementing? To controlling? All managers plan for the purpose of attaining the objectives in the proper time period and in the most efficient and effective way. Sound organization requires placing qualified employees in the right jobs and balancing the output of work between human resources and physical ones. Control programs are essential if employees and departments affected understand the importance of control. 14. Name the steps in the communication process. Where do most of the communication problems occur in the process. Why? The communication process consists of idea origination, the message, channel selecting and encoding, transmission, receiving, decoding, and feedback. Most of the communication problems occur during transmission because it is very possible for messages to get lost. 15. Of the communication principles that are mentioned in this chapter, which do you think is of the greatest importance to a practicing manager? Justify why. 16. What are the 3 types of organizational change and when does change need to occur? They are technological, environmental, and internal. Change needs to occur when problems arise. 17. Name the most common reasons employees resist change. The most common reasons employees resist change are job security and income, uncertainty, personal inconvenience, loss of status and power, and change in personal relationships. 18. Define conflict and name 4 major types of conflict. Â  Conflict is a clash of opposing ideas and interests which lead to disagreement. The four types of conflict are interpersonal, intergroup, interdepartmental, and organizational. 19. What are the essential steps in the control process? Explain each. The steps in the control process include setting standards, appraising conformance to the standards, and taking appropriate corrective or remedial action if the standards are not met or are exceeded. Standards are based on the goals and objectives of the organization. Appraising conformance happens in two steps which are measuring performance and comparing performance to the standards. 20. List and briefly discuss the characteristics of effective control. The details of each control program should be tailored to fit the needs of individual organizations because every organization’s products and services are different from each other’s. The establishment of controls must have the complete support of top management because without it, it would be difficult to convince either managers or employees that controls are essential. Control programs must be cost-effective. Control activities should possess enough flexibility to adapt to change because when new standards are needed, it is better to modify the existing control program than to create an entirely new system. Control programs should provide information in a timely way. Objective information is the essence of sound control. 21. Define performance appraisal. Performance appraisal is a process that involves determining and communicating to employees how they are performing their jobs and establishing a plan for improvement. 22. List and clarify the traditional steps in the appraisal process. They are determine objectives of performance appraisal, establish job expectations, select appraisal method, decide who will rate the employee, appraise performance, discuss results with employee, and review appraisal with superior manager. 23. Identify 4 common rating errors which can occur in appraising employee performance. They are halo effect which is rating an employee excellent in one quality which influences the rater to give higher than deserved scores on other qualities, horn effect which is rating an employee unsatisfactory in one quality and lowering the rating on other qualities as a result, central tendency which is tending to grade employees average on all qualities, and strict rating which is rating lower than the normal or average. 24. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Intrinsic rewards are internal to the individual and stem from the work itself and extrinsic rewards are distributed by higher management and are not under the control of the employee. 25. Discuss the meaning of information overload. Information overload suggests that a manager has more information than they can digest. 26. Explain 4 things that make information useful. They are accurate information is valid and correct, timely information means that managers have facts, data, figures, and such available for review before they must make decisions so that it can be used to the organization’s advantage, complete information provides the manager all of the facts and information that relate to the decision-making situation, and relevant information refers to a manager’s having the kind of information he or she needs for the particular decision-making situation.